Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Soviet psychologist whose research work focus on the role of environment in children’s cognitive development, where it moves largely ‘from the outside in’ through understanding contextual knowledge. Learning occurs through interactions with the environment where the children have the ability to internalize new skills and information within zone of proximal development.
According to Vygotsky, infants direct contact with the environment during their first two years lead to the development of their innate perceptual, attention, and memory capacities (Vygotsky, 1978). Collaborative dialogues with more experienced members of their society enable children to learn most of the culture’s problem solving skills. Learning, he asserted, should be more like an apprenticeship instead of personal discovery.
Learning is also a culture specific process. Children learn mathematics in school has different learning experience than those who learn counting through selling things in their parents’ grocery store in Brazil.
Private Speech
Children construct cognitive structures by listening to the social speech they hear daily from others. They adopted parts of it and produce private speech – speech they say aloud to themselves.
They use self-talk strategies whenever they face cognitive challenges. For instance, when solving a jigsaw puzzle, we may get to hear, “Hmm, where’s the snowy mountain cap part? I need it now. Wait, it’s here, alright. What about the sky? It’s all blue.”
Vygotsky stressed that children engage in random thoughts and verbalise them freely. They use private speech to regulate their actions and plan their strategies. It will gradually internalize as silent speech when they become adults, where the inner voice speaks inside their head as they encounter problems (Berk and Spuhl, 1995).
Zone of Proximal Development
Zone of proximal development (ZPD) is defined as the range of distance between children’s actual developmental level as they perform tasks alone and their potential level of development as they are assisted by a more knowledgeable and competent peers and adults.
Vygotsky asserted that since learning occurs in the ZPD, their level of comprehension will increase tremendously. Analyzing the ZPD realistically enables appropriate assessment of the difficulty level of learning. In the long run, necessary accommodation can be made and thus ensuring effective individual learning.
Scaffolding
Generally, efficient learning progress can be achieved through scaffolding method. Scaffolding takes place when more accomplished adults and peers adjust the cognitive support offered to children throughout the learning process until they can handle the challenges on their own.
When children have no clue on how to proceed with a task, the adult will explain directly at the children’s listening pace and deconstruct the task into smaller manageable units. When the children begin to show progress, the adult will reduce the amount of direct assistance. The verbal exchange occurs earlier may be internalized by a child and lead to their private talk, that continues to build their confidence and competence at accomplishing the tasks fully on their own (Hedegaard, 1995).
Sunday, November 20, 2011
Case Studies - Intercultural Dilemma of a Muslim student in Australia
To Mr. CP Rajah, Vice President (Academic Affairs)
From Deryk Ng
Academic Counsellor
Faculty of Pre University Program
16th September 2011
I am writing this report on behalf of a student in our college, Mohammad Azman Khaldun. He is currently pursuing a pre-university program, with the intention of pursuing a university degree next year.
Recently, he applied for a scholarship from various universities in Australia. One of the universities approved his application. The representative of the university will be coming to our college soon to present information to all the scholarship recipients in preparation to travel to Australia for further studies.
I am writing this report in my capacity as the academic counsellor to present an introduction to student’s religious background, statement of problem and possible solutions in the following sections. The report concludes with best solution, recommendation, and conclusion.
Introduction to Student’s Religious Background
A Muslim is defined as an individual who espouses the Islamic faith.
One of the most important practices is that a Muslim prays 5 times a day at specified times throughout the day, namely 6:00 am – “Subuh”, 1:30 pm – “Zohor”, 4:15 pm – “Asar”, 7:30 pm – “Maghrib”, 8:15 pm – “Ishak”
If one misses the first one, muslimin (male devotee) and muslimah (female devotee) can conduct prayer before the second one. For example, if Azman missed the 6:00 session, he can pray at any time before 1:30pm. Most of the time, the problem is to perform the Zohor (afternoon) prayer and Asar (evening) prayer. In this situation, it is permissible to adopt rukhsah (concession) like adjusting the prayer times. Both solat (prayer), Zohor and Asar, can be combined together in one time either in the afternoon or in the evening (whichever is preferable as long as it is performed as Solat is one of the 5 Pillars of Islam.). However, a Muslim should adhere to the time as strictly as possible to fulfill their religious duties.
They can perform worship preferably in a mosque on Friday. However, in the absence of a mosque, they may carry out their duty in the direction of Ka’abah, also known as kiblat in their own personal room. In an actual mosque, there will be a spiritual leader known as imam who will lead the worship to Allah. If there is no mosque in the vicinity of the university, they may find a place approved by the university administration to have their worship session.
A Muslim dietary practice is very different from other cultures or religions. Halal food, or food confirmed to be not having unclean ingredients (such as pork or dog meat) are compulsory for Muslims. They must not consume non-halal food at all times in their life, unless they are under dire circumstances such as starvation or unavailability of halal food. Nevertheless, the exceptions must only be carried out under emergency situations.
Mohammad Azman Khaldun was born in Iran. He is an Iranian by nationality and Muslim by faith. His religion dictates that he must go for prayer session 5 times a day, towards a certain direction. In a certain month called month of Ramadan, he needs to go for fasting from morning 7am till 7pm, breaking fast after 7pm. During these hours he needs to abstain from food (Yaran, 2007).
Statement of Problem
Azman is currently pursuing his studies at pre-university level. He has excelled in his studies and extra-curricular activities. He applied for scholarships from various Australian universities recently.
After waiting for a month, he was awarded a scholarship to pursue tertiary education in Australia.
However, he came to realise that his religious obligations and commitments might not be given considerations fully, especially the prayer times. Clashes of academic timetable with the prayer time will occur. He wishes to strive for academic excellence as well as continuing his religious practices.
He has visited me for assistance. There are three possible solutions for us to consider. Let’s look at the following:
Solution 1
Mohammad Azman Khaldun must make a decision to concentrate on either studies or religion. He should realise that whatever decision made means there will be compromise between the two.
Advantage and Disadvantage
The advantage of this solution is that he is able to make a firm decision on either focusing on academic excellence or performing religious practice.
Disadvantageously, setting priority on one aspect will end up in neglecting the other.
Assuming that he sets priority in fulfilling academic goals, he will have to attend all lectures and put aside all religious obligations. If his family members come to know this, he may be perceived as not devoted to his religion. There will be disapproval from the relatives as well as his religious community in Iran.
On the other hand, he would miss some lectures if he puts religious practices as first priority. Consequently, he will not perform well in his academic work.
Jeopardising a bright future for the sake of religion may not be wise as it is a private practice which can be carried out in his personal time. He should be able to focus on it once again any time after he completes his university degree.
Solution 2
He should stay in Iran and further his studies. This enables him to accommodate both studies and religion.
Advantage and Disadvantage
It is advantageous for Azman to stay in Iran as he gets to pursue tertiary education and adhere to his religious commitments simultaneously. Handling both effectively will give him satisfaction and spiritual wholeness.
The downside of this choice is that Azman will not have the opportunity to experience cutting edge education in Australia. The university that offers the scholarship is assumed to have a higher quality education than Iran. Scholarships are not always available and only given to well-deserved individuals who excel academically.
Besides that, he will not have the opportunity to interact with people of various ethnicities, cultures, faiths and religions. He will not gain exposure from understanding perspectives that are different from his own if he declines the offer to study abroad.
Solution 3
Azman should seek help from the university. They will assess the circumstances and make special arrangements for him. Alternatively, he may choose academic schedules that will not clash with the time of religious practice.
Advantage and Disadvantage
Some believe that it is equally imperative to preserve spiritual roots and pursue academic excellence. They assert that the ultimate meaning of life should consist of excellence in both endeavours.
This advantageous approach allows him to acquire good time management to maintain his religious practices while benefitting from world-class education.
The university will be seen as being culturally sensitive to students coming from various backgrounds. Consequently, it will receive excellent reputation as a multi-cultural institution.
On the contrary, it may cause inconvenience and additional costs to the university administration and students as adjustments and accommodations have to be made solely for the minority community.
Besides that, such considerations may cause resentment to others. They may begin to make all kinds of request. If the university does not comply, there may be irreconcilable conflicts. Based on this case alone, they may be accused of practising bias.
Best Solution
Based on the three proposals, the third option is the best choice to solve Azman’s dilemma.
In the era of globalization characterized by accessibility of international travel and rapid communications through the Internet, individuals from various cultural and religious backgrounds begin to interact dynamically. Conflicts between different groups may arise due to miscommunication and misunderstanding.
The university bears the social obligations to accommodate to the needs of the international students. The skills of being culturally sensitive must be adopted by both the university administration and its students. An academic institution that is free from bias and discrimination is very conducive for studies and involvement in research work, thus attracting excellent students from all over the world and propel the university to international fame.
Azman will be able to excel academically and fulfill his obligation as a Muslim. He will not have to experience emotional tension due to neglect of any of the two aspects.
Recommendations
I would like to recommend that we convey this information to the Australian university representatives. We can prepare a report that describes Azman’s religious background as well as his academic achievements. Then we will proceed with highlighting Azman’s areas of concern which may consist of the prayer time and information on the availability of halal meals, Muslim’s Students Club, and worship facilities.
We would also do research on universities in United States, United Kingdom and Australia which have successfully implemented cultural-friendly strategies. The summary of the findings will be presented to the Australian representatives.
We are confident that there will be enrolment of many Muslim students in that university. Therefore, such requests will not cause any complications as they will not be perceived as having to make adjustments merely for one student. Instead, it’s a good opportunity for them to cultivate the administrative style of being culturally sensitive to the needs of, not just the Muslim community, but other cultural, religious or racial groups as well.
When all these policies are carried out efficiently, cultural diversity will be flourishing in the academic institution. In time to come, its reputation will increase tremendously in the eyes of the public.
Conclusion
In this era, universities all over the world should be more open-minded, considerate and flexible in formulating important policies that caters to the needs of students from different ethnic and religious backgrounds. We must not implement policies that may unintentionally violate their religious rights. As an international university, it is wise to contemplate on the cultural and religious backgrounds of the recipients before awarding the scholarships accordingly.
It is our greatest hope that we will be able to establish good communication with the Australian representatives in order to reach a common cultural understanding.
Thank you.
Deryk Ng
ACADEMIC COUNSELLOR
REFERENCE
Yaran, C. S. (2007). Understanding Islam. United Kingdom: Dunedin Academic Press.
From Deryk Ng
Academic Counsellor
Faculty of Pre University Program
16th September 2011
I am writing this report on behalf of a student in our college, Mohammad Azman Khaldun. He is currently pursuing a pre-university program, with the intention of pursuing a university degree next year.
Recently, he applied for a scholarship from various universities in Australia. One of the universities approved his application. The representative of the university will be coming to our college soon to present information to all the scholarship recipients in preparation to travel to Australia for further studies.
I am writing this report in my capacity as the academic counsellor to present an introduction to student’s religious background, statement of problem and possible solutions in the following sections. The report concludes with best solution, recommendation, and conclusion.
Introduction to Student’s Religious Background
A Muslim is defined as an individual who espouses the Islamic faith.
One of the most important practices is that a Muslim prays 5 times a day at specified times throughout the day, namely 6:00 am – “Subuh”, 1:30 pm – “Zohor”, 4:15 pm – “Asar”, 7:30 pm – “Maghrib”, 8:15 pm – “Ishak”
If one misses the first one, muslimin (male devotee) and muslimah (female devotee) can conduct prayer before the second one. For example, if Azman missed the 6:00 session, he can pray at any time before 1:30pm. Most of the time, the problem is to perform the Zohor (afternoon) prayer and Asar (evening) prayer. In this situation, it is permissible to adopt rukhsah (concession) like adjusting the prayer times. Both solat (prayer), Zohor and Asar, can be combined together in one time either in the afternoon or in the evening (whichever is preferable as long as it is performed as Solat is one of the 5 Pillars of Islam.). However, a Muslim should adhere to the time as strictly as possible to fulfill their religious duties.
They can perform worship preferably in a mosque on Friday. However, in the absence of a mosque, they may carry out their duty in the direction of Ka’abah, also known as kiblat in their own personal room. In an actual mosque, there will be a spiritual leader known as imam who will lead the worship to Allah. If there is no mosque in the vicinity of the university, they may find a place approved by the university administration to have their worship session.
A Muslim dietary practice is very different from other cultures or religions. Halal food, or food confirmed to be not having unclean ingredients (such as pork or dog meat) are compulsory for Muslims. They must not consume non-halal food at all times in their life, unless they are under dire circumstances such as starvation or unavailability of halal food. Nevertheless, the exceptions must only be carried out under emergency situations.
Mohammad Azman Khaldun was born in Iran. He is an Iranian by nationality and Muslim by faith. His religion dictates that he must go for prayer session 5 times a day, towards a certain direction. In a certain month called month of Ramadan, he needs to go for fasting from morning 7am till 7pm, breaking fast after 7pm. During these hours he needs to abstain from food (Yaran, 2007).
Statement of Problem
Azman is currently pursuing his studies at pre-university level. He has excelled in his studies and extra-curricular activities. He applied for scholarships from various Australian universities recently.
After waiting for a month, he was awarded a scholarship to pursue tertiary education in Australia.
However, he came to realise that his religious obligations and commitments might not be given considerations fully, especially the prayer times. Clashes of academic timetable with the prayer time will occur. He wishes to strive for academic excellence as well as continuing his religious practices.
He has visited me for assistance. There are three possible solutions for us to consider. Let’s look at the following:
Solution 1
Mohammad Azman Khaldun must make a decision to concentrate on either studies or religion. He should realise that whatever decision made means there will be compromise between the two.
Advantage and Disadvantage
The advantage of this solution is that he is able to make a firm decision on either focusing on academic excellence or performing religious practice.
Disadvantageously, setting priority on one aspect will end up in neglecting the other.
Assuming that he sets priority in fulfilling academic goals, he will have to attend all lectures and put aside all religious obligations. If his family members come to know this, he may be perceived as not devoted to his religion. There will be disapproval from the relatives as well as his religious community in Iran.
On the other hand, he would miss some lectures if he puts religious practices as first priority. Consequently, he will not perform well in his academic work.
Jeopardising a bright future for the sake of religion may not be wise as it is a private practice which can be carried out in his personal time. He should be able to focus on it once again any time after he completes his university degree.
Solution 2
He should stay in Iran and further his studies. This enables him to accommodate both studies and religion.
Advantage and Disadvantage
It is advantageous for Azman to stay in Iran as he gets to pursue tertiary education and adhere to his religious commitments simultaneously. Handling both effectively will give him satisfaction and spiritual wholeness.
The downside of this choice is that Azman will not have the opportunity to experience cutting edge education in Australia. The university that offers the scholarship is assumed to have a higher quality education than Iran. Scholarships are not always available and only given to well-deserved individuals who excel academically.
Besides that, he will not have the opportunity to interact with people of various ethnicities, cultures, faiths and religions. He will not gain exposure from understanding perspectives that are different from his own if he declines the offer to study abroad.
Solution 3
Azman should seek help from the university. They will assess the circumstances and make special arrangements for him. Alternatively, he may choose academic schedules that will not clash with the time of religious practice.
Advantage and Disadvantage
Some believe that it is equally imperative to preserve spiritual roots and pursue academic excellence. They assert that the ultimate meaning of life should consist of excellence in both endeavours.
This advantageous approach allows him to acquire good time management to maintain his religious practices while benefitting from world-class education.
The university will be seen as being culturally sensitive to students coming from various backgrounds. Consequently, it will receive excellent reputation as a multi-cultural institution.
On the contrary, it may cause inconvenience and additional costs to the university administration and students as adjustments and accommodations have to be made solely for the minority community.
Besides that, such considerations may cause resentment to others. They may begin to make all kinds of request. If the university does not comply, there may be irreconcilable conflicts. Based on this case alone, they may be accused of practising bias.
Best Solution
Based on the three proposals, the third option is the best choice to solve Azman’s dilemma.
In the era of globalization characterized by accessibility of international travel and rapid communications through the Internet, individuals from various cultural and religious backgrounds begin to interact dynamically. Conflicts between different groups may arise due to miscommunication and misunderstanding.
The university bears the social obligations to accommodate to the needs of the international students. The skills of being culturally sensitive must be adopted by both the university administration and its students. An academic institution that is free from bias and discrimination is very conducive for studies and involvement in research work, thus attracting excellent students from all over the world and propel the university to international fame.
Azman will be able to excel academically and fulfill his obligation as a Muslim. He will not have to experience emotional tension due to neglect of any of the two aspects.
Recommendations
I would like to recommend that we convey this information to the Australian university representatives. We can prepare a report that describes Azman’s religious background as well as his academic achievements. Then we will proceed with highlighting Azman’s areas of concern which may consist of the prayer time and information on the availability of halal meals, Muslim’s Students Club, and worship facilities.
We would also do research on universities in United States, United Kingdom and Australia which have successfully implemented cultural-friendly strategies. The summary of the findings will be presented to the Australian representatives.
We are confident that there will be enrolment of many Muslim students in that university. Therefore, such requests will not cause any complications as they will not be perceived as having to make adjustments merely for one student. Instead, it’s a good opportunity for them to cultivate the administrative style of being culturally sensitive to the needs of, not just the Muslim community, but other cultural, religious or racial groups as well.
When all these policies are carried out efficiently, cultural diversity will be flourishing in the academic institution. In time to come, its reputation will increase tremendously in the eyes of the public.
Conclusion
In this era, universities all over the world should be more open-minded, considerate and flexible in formulating important policies that caters to the needs of students from different ethnic and religious backgrounds. We must not implement policies that may unintentionally violate their religious rights. As an international university, it is wise to contemplate on the cultural and religious backgrounds of the recipients before awarding the scholarships accordingly.
It is our greatest hope that we will be able to establish good communication with the Australian representatives in order to reach a common cultural understanding.
Thank you.
Deryk Ng
ACADEMIC COUNSELLOR
REFERENCE
Yaran, C. S. (2007). Understanding Islam. United Kingdom: Dunedin Academic Press.
Research Methodology - Validity & Reliability
Reliabilty is the measure's consistency in leading to results on different but comparable occassions.
Observation on a child's behavior was conducted by two different clinicians. Their analysis were compared and finalised. This is called inter rater reliability.
A similar test, arranged in different format, is given to the same person one week apart and the results are compared. This is another concept of reliability called test-retest reliability.
Validity refers to the extent of which a test measures what it is supposed to measure. A car speedometer is supposed to measure the speed of the vehicle, not the air pressure of the tyre.
There are two types of validity - internal validity and external validity.
Internal validity refers to what extent the the test measures what it supposed to measure within the parameters of various variables.
For instance, in Zimbardo deindividuation concept,
Case A : a group of anonymous people, encountering an obnoxious man,
Case B: a group on non anonymous people, encountering pleasant woman,
In Case A, did they act aggresively due to being anonymous or due to the obnoxious man, or both?
In Case B, They didn't act aggresively, was it because they are non anonymous, or because there was a pleasant lady or both?
So internal validity is very concerned with what you are supposed to be measuring.
Just like a speedometer of a car is not supposed to measure air pressure even though it produces reliable and consistent figures.
External validity, on the other hand, concerns with how much extent the test in the laboratory setting can be generalised into a real life circumstances.
Delivering electric shocks in the laboratory setting is quite different from obeying the authority to carry out evil acts in the dark night.
Observation on a child's behavior was conducted by two different clinicians. Their analysis were compared and finalised. This is called inter rater reliability.
A similar test, arranged in different format, is given to the same person one week apart and the results are compared. This is another concept of reliability called test-retest reliability.
Validity refers to the extent of which a test measures what it is supposed to measure. A car speedometer is supposed to measure the speed of the vehicle, not the air pressure of the tyre.
There are two types of validity - internal validity and external validity.
Internal validity refers to what extent the the test measures what it supposed to measure within the parameters of various variables.
For instance, in Zimbardo deindividuation concept,
Case A : a group of anonymous people, encountering an obnoxious man,
Case B: a group on non anonymous people, encountering pleasant woman,
In Case A, did they act aggresively due to being anonymous or due to the obnoxious man, or both?
In Case B, They didn't act aggresively, was it because they are non anonymous, or because there was a pleasant lady or both?
So internal validity is very concerned with what you are supposed to be measuring.
Just like a speedometer of a car is not supposed to measure air pressure even though it produces reliable and consistent figures.
External validity, on the other hand, concerns with how much extent the test in the laboratory setting can be generalised into a real life circumstances.
Delivering electric shocks in the laboratory setting is quite different from obeying the authority to carry out evil acts in the dark night.
Saturday, November 19, 2011
Adult Attachment Interview
Investigations are carried out to observe the correlation between the parent’s attachment and their children’s attachment to them.
Three major factors affecting the caregiver’s characteristics of responsiveness are identified, namely:
The parent’s early childhood experience of attachment and their internal working model.
The risk factors experienced by the parents such as mental illness, depression, or substance abuse.
The availability of help from other caregivers in raising children
An assessment called Adult Attachment Interview is carried out to elicit information about parents’ working models of attachment. They are required to recall and describe their past and current relationship with their parents. Eventually, the reports are analysed together with the attachment classification of their children. There is a strong positive correlation of their attachment and the attachment of their children (Bretherton & Munholland, 2008, p. 118; see also, Riggs & Jacobvitz, 2002).
Characteristic of Secure Adults
Based on the Adult Attachment Interview, the parents who were identified as having secure working models had five primary characteristics, they:
place great value on attachment relationship;
have faith that their attachment relationship serve as a major influence on their personality;
describe their relationships in objective and balanced manner;
are at ease in recalling and discussing attachment due to good reflection on their experience;
have a realistic perspective of their parents and own attachment experiences instead of idealistic ones (Main et al., 1985).
Many secure adults reported good early experience and relationship with their own parents, while some of them described their traumatic history. What differentiates between secure and insecure adults was not the actual incident itself but on how they understood and integrated those positive and negative experience easily and openly.
Characteristic of Insecure Adults
Insecurely attached adults are generally feeling pessimistic about attachment relationship, not being objective in describing experiences, and being in denial on how attachment experiences could influence their personality. Insecure parents can be classified into three main patterns, listed in the following.
Dismissive Adults
This type of parents who dismissed the importance of attachment was discovered to have avoidant infants. Children turn away from parents and tend to rely on themselves rather than seeking attachment.
Preoccupied Adults
Preoccupied adults blame themselves for the uncaring and inconsistent responses from their parents, struggle to please their parents and develop the self-image of unlovable or undeserving (Bowlby, 1980; Bretherton & Munholland, 2008). Their infants are usually classified as ambivalent,
Three major factors affecting the caregiver’s characteristics of responsiveness are identified, namely:
The parent’s early childhood experience of attachment and their internal working model.
The risk factors experienced by the parents such as mental illness, depression, or substance abuse.
The availability of help from other caregivers in raising children
An assessment called Adult Attachment Interview is carried out to elicit information about parents’ working models of attachment. They are required to recall and describe their past and current relationship with their parents. Eventually, the reports are analysed together with the attachment classification of their children. There is a strong positive correlation of their attachment and the attachment of their children (Bretherton & Munholland, 2008, p. 118; see also, Riggs & Jacobvitz, 2002).
Characteristic of Secure Adults
Based on the Adult Attachment Interview, the parents who were identified as having secure working models had five primary characteristics, they:
place great value on attachment relationship;
have faith that their attachment relationship serve as a major influence on their personality;
describe their relationships in objective and balanced manner;
are at ease in recalling and discussing attachment due to good reflection on their experience;
have a realistic perspective of their parents and own attachment experiences instead of idealistic ones (Main et al., 1985).
Many secure adults reported good early experience and relationship with their own parents, while some of them described their traumatic history. What differentiates between secure and insecure adults was not the actual incident itself but on how they understood and integrated those positive and negative experience easily and openly.
Characteristic of Insecure Adults
Insecurely attached adults are generally feeling pessimistic about attachment relationship, not being objective in describing experiences, and being in denial on how attachment experiences could influence their personality. Insecure parents can be classified into three main patterns, listed in the following.
Dismissive Adults
This type of parents who dismissed the importance of attachment was discovered to have avoidant infants. Children turn away from parents and tend to rely on themselves rather than seeking attachment.
Preoccupied Adults
Preoccupied adults blame themselves for the uncaring and inconsistent responses from their parents, struggle to please their parents and develop the self-image of unlovable or undeserving (Bowlby, 1980; Bretherton & Munholland, 2008). Their infants are usually classified as ambivalent,
Unresolved Adults
Some parents experienced traumatic incidences in their childhood such as physical and sexual abuse. There are also other parents who, in a disordered manner, mourned the death of their parents when they were young.
They have the irrational tendency to blame themselves for being the cause of abuse as well as the parents’ death (Main and Hess, 1990).
If they are asked to describe their negative experiences, they will unknowingly demonstrate incoherent flow of thought and abruptly changed topics (Hess & Main, 2006). Their children will be most likely disoriented.
Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Procedure
Ainsworth and her team developed a laboratory-based methodology for verifying Bowlby’s theory, leading to Strange Situation Procedure (SSP).
How Does it Occur?
Newborns form attachment after birth and continue through early childhood.
All the following gestures assist the formation of good parent-child attachment (Thompson, 1998).
Crying serves as a powerful social signal that induces sympathy.
Infants of 4- to 6-week-old demonstrate social smiling that will elicit joy and pleasure.
At 6 months old, they give happy greetings such as smiling and extending out their arms when their parents return.
Are There Different Kinds of Attachments?
Ainsworth and her team conducted this 20-minute long SSP session to observe how children react to separation from their caregivers. Infants will be crying in distress if they discover that their parents leave them.
A mother and her baby entered a laboratory room that was redesigned to resemble a comfortable living room. The mother sat down and the child began to explore the surrounding. Then, a stranger, being unfamiliar but appeared friendly, entered the room. Next, she got up and left the place, leaving the baby alone with the unfamiliar adult.
Moments later, she came back to the room and the stranger left the place. She was alone with the baby for several minutes. The whole session was secretly videotaped, so that the child reactions and behaviors could be analyzed later.
SSP is a useful tool for assessing attachment security. Infants’ reaction on separation and reunion of their parents at home can be linked to the quality of parental responsiveness as well as how the infants regard their parents as the secure base in which they can explore the surrounding confidently (Pederson and Moran, 1996;Pederson et al., 1998).
There are four categories of attachment, namely secure, avoidant, ambivalent, and disoriented.
Approximately 60 % of North American infants in middle-SES families possess secure attachment.
Baby explored the room freely when mother is around. Next, stranger came and conversed with mother. She left inconspicuously and the stranger attempted to respond to the baby by offering comfort if feeling upset. The baby cries because they prefer mother over stranger. When mother returned, the baby actively established contact and the crying ceased immediately.
Mothers of secure infants provide more affection and stimulation to their babies. A caregiver’s responsiveness to infants can contribute to a more harmonious relationship later in life between the child and parents.
There are approximately 10% of North American infants in middle-SES families with this ambivalent attachment.
Baby explores very little and spends more time clinging to mother. Baby is extremely distressed when mother left. The child displays inconsistent behavior such as clinging angrily while being carried.
What Are the Effects of Attachment?
The children need the parental support to gain emotional stability in unfamiliar surroundings. They react to unresponsive mothers by expressing anger and hostility due to the internalization of the episodes of unresponsive treatment they experience in the past.
Bowlby suggested that early experiences of infant-parent interaction would eventually form working models for adult relationship. It is internalized in the form of unconscious expectations about relationship that exert powerful influence on adult interpersonal communication.
If children feel neglected, or find it difficult to trust their mothers to take care of them, they may begin to form the impression that others will neglect them too. On the contrary, if they are confident about their parents’ love for them, then they will anticipate others to find them lovable as well (Bowlby, 1988).
High dependency, poor coping skills and social relationship are closely associated with insecure attachment (Burge et.al, 1997; M.S. Howard & Medway, 2004). Unless intervention is implemented, she will likely to have difficulty forming healthy bonds with parents or other adults in the future.
Sensitive caregiving, regardless of the difference of parents or caregivers, cross cultural variance, or socioeconomic status, is considered the key element in enhancing attachment (De Wolff & van IJzendoorn, 1997; Posada et al., 2002, 2004; Stams, Juffer, & van IJzendoorn, 2002; van IJzendoorn et al., 2004)
How Does it Occur?
Newborns form attachment after birth and continue through early childhood.
All the following gestures assist the formation of good parent-child attachment (Thompson, 1998).
Crying serves as a powerful social signal that induces sympathy.
Infants of 4- to 6-week-old demonstrate social smiling that will elicit joy and pleasure.
At 6 months old, they give happy greetings such as smiling and extending out their arms when their parents return.
Are There Different Kinds of Attachments?
Ainsworth and her team conducted this 20-minute long SSP session to observe how children react to separation from their caregivers. Infants will be crying in distress if they discover that their parents leave them.
A mother and her baby entered a laboratory room that was redesigned to resemble a comfortable living room. The mother sat down and the child began to explore the surrounding. Then, a stranger, being unfamiliar but appeared friendly, entered the room. Next, she got up and left the place, leaving the baby alone with the unfamiliar adult.
Moments later, she came back to the room and the stranger left the place. She was alone with the baby for several minutes. The whole session was secretly videotaped, so that the child reactions and behaviors could be analyzed later.
SSP is a useful tool for assessing attachment security. Infants’ reaction on separation and reunion of their parents at home can be linked to the quality of parental responsiveness as well as how the infants regard their parents as the secure base in which they can explore the surrounding confidently (Pederson and Moran, 1996;Pederson et al., 1998).
There are four categories of attachment, namely secure, avoidant, ambivalent, and disoriented.
Approximately 60 % of North American infants in middle-SES families possess secure attachment.
Baby explored the room freely when mother is around. Next, stranger came and conversed with mother. She left inconspicuously and the stranger attempted to respond to the baby by offering comfort if feeling upset. The baby cries because they prefer mother over stranger. When mother returned, the baby actively established contact and the crying ceased immediately.
Mothers of secure infants provide more affection and stimulation to their babies. A caregiver’s responsiveness to infants can contribute to a more harmonious relationship later in life between the child and parents.
There are approximately 10% of North American infants in middle-SES families with this ambivalent attachment.
Baby explores very little and spends more time clinging to mother. Baby is extremely distressed when mother left. The child displays inconsistent behavior such as clinging angrily while being carried.
What Are the Effects of Attachment?
The children need the parental support to gain emotional stability in unfamiliar surroundings. They react to unresponsive mothers by expressing anger and hostility due to the internalization of the episodes of unresponsive treatment they experience in the past.
Bowlby suggested that early experiences of infant-parent interaction would eventually form working models for adult relationship. It is internalized in the form of unconscious expectations about relationship that exert powerful influence on adult interpersonal communication.
If children feel neglected, or find it difficult to trust their mothers to take care of them, they may begin to form the impression that others will neglect them too. On the contrary, if they are confident about their parents’ love for them, then they will anticipate others to find them lovable as well (Bowlby, 1988).
High dependency, poor coping skills and social relationship are closely associated with insecure attachment (Burge et.al, 1997; M.S. Howard & Medway, 2004). Unless intervention is implemented, she will likely to have difficulty forming healthy bonds with parents or other adults in the future.
Sensitive caregiving, regardless of the difference of parents or caregivers, cross cultural variance, or socioeconomic status, is considered the key element in enhancing attachment (De Wolff & van IJzendoorn, 1997; Posada et al., 2002, 2004; Stams, Juffer, & van IJzendoorn, 2002; van IJzendoorn et al., 2004)
Bowlby’s Attachment Theory
Attachment is defined as the basic and intimate emotional bond that develops between the infant and caregivers. Unconvinced with the psychoanalytic view that the child’s love of mother derived from oral gratification, psychologist John Bowlby began to formulate an attachment theory based on evolutionary concepts proposed by Lorenz and Tinbergen.
He asserted that attachment behavior that evolved through a process of natural selection has adaptive value that enables the infant a greater opportunity of survival. His work was a major departure from the Freudian views, which put less emphasis on actual interaction and relationship (Bowlby, 1969).
He asserted that attachment behavior that evolved through a process of natural selection has adaptive value that enables the infant a greater opportunity of survival. His work was a major departure from the Freudian views, which put less emphasis on actual interaction and relationship (Bowlby, 1969).
Face Enhancement & Detraction Strategies among the Chinese
Chinese regard the concept of face with great significance. The closest meaning of “face” are “good reputation”, “dignity”, “prestige”, and “high standing”.
The following shows various types of “face”.
丢面子 (diumianzi, losing face).
It refers to one’s embarrassment when shameful deeds have been exposed.
给面子 (geimianzi, giving face)
It refers to using face enhancing strategies to show respect. A subordinate should not point out the mistake of a superior. This applies to other interpersonal relationships such as children with parents, students with teachers, and athletes with coaches as well.
留面子 (liumianzi, granting face)
It refers to giving someone the opportunity to recover lost honor and reputation.
讲面子 (jiangmianzi, emphasis on face)
It refers to the habit of preserving and upholding one’s honor in any social circumstances.
争面子 (zhengmianzi, competing for face)
It refers to “keeping up with the Joneses”. When the neighbor bought a new car, Thomas buys a more expensive car to preserve his “face” in the public.
The following shows various types of “face”.
丢面子 (diumianzi, losing face).
It refers to one’s embarrassment when shameful deeds have been exposed.
给面子 (geimianzi, giving face)
It refers to using face enhancing strategies to show respect. A subordinate should not point out the mistake of a superior. This applies to other interpersonal relationships such as children with parents, students with teachers, and athletes with coaches as well.
留面子 (liumianzi, granting face)
It refers to giving someone the opportunity to recover lost honor and reputation.
讲面子 (jiangmianzi, emphasis on face)
It refers to the habit of preserving and upholding one’s honor in any social circumstances.
争面子 (zhengmianzi, competing for face)
It refers to “keeping up with the Joneses”. When the neighbor bought a new car, Thomas buys a more expensive car to preserve his “face” in the public.
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